ENGINEERING AND ECONOMICS: ANALYSIS OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY CHALLENGES AND IMPACT ON ENERGY INDUSTRY

 

1.    ABSTRACT

 Modern life and associated lifestyles require reliable and secure power supply. The need for continuity on essential and critical services which include but not limited to healthcare, financial system, telecommunication, emergency response, navigation, transportation exert the need for energy storage systems that ensure continuity of power supply. Battery storage technologies have even become more critical in the modern world due to the need for replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy. Unfortunately, just like any other technology, the battery technology has faced its own share of challenges that has a bearing on engineering and the energy industry. This paper analyzes some of the most recent battery related incidents and identifies the causes of the problems and briefly discusses the potential impact on the energy industry.

2.    LITHIUM-ION BATTERY POTENTIAL ON THE ENERGY INDUSTRY TRANSITION

 Materials that reasonably conduct electricity can be grouped into metallic and electrolytic conductors. Metallic and electrolytic conductors, such as acids, bases, and salts allow the movement of electric charge through a process known as electrochemical reaction. Electrochemical reaction is any process either caused or accompanied by the passage of an electric current and involving in most cases the transfer of electrons between two substances—one a solid and the other a liquid [1]. A battery is an assembly of metallic conductors separated by electrolytic conductors to achieve the process of electrochemical reaction. When electric power is being supplied by a battery, the positive terminal is known as the cathode while the negative terminal is the anode. A battery is called rechargeable if its electrochemical reaction is reversible i.e., it can be charged and recharged. The battery has therefore become a very critical technology in modern day engineering as one of the means for energy storage.

 

Different technologies have been employed in manufacturing batteries. These technologies involve different combinations of metallic and electrolytic materials, including lead–acid, zinc–air, nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), and lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion polymer). Batteries range in size from small units that can supply power in watts to large systems that can supply mega-watts. There are, therefore, many applications of batteries from domestic to commercial. Devices that use batteries for energy storage applications include but not limited to portable consumer devices, light vehicles, road vehicles, trains, airplanes, uninterruptible power systems, and storage systems for power stations. Lithium-ion batteries are by far the most popular battery storage option today and control more than 90 percent of the global grid battery storage market [2]. Lithium-ion rechargeable batteries seem to be everywhere—they provide power for most portable electronics, an increasing number of hand tools, as well as the latest types of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs, such as Nissan Leaf and Tesla Roadster) and Extended-Range Electric Vehicles (E-REV such as Chevy Volt) [3]. “Demand for Lithium-Ion batteries to power electric vehicles and energy storage has seen exponential growth, increasing from just 0.5 gigawatt-hours in 2010 to around 526 gigawatt hours a decade later. Demand is projected to increase 17-fold by 2030, bringing the cost of battery storage down, according to Bloomberg [4].”

Figure1: Cumulative lithium-ion battery demand for vehicle/energy storage applications (in GW hours).
Source: Bloomberg

Figure2: Opportunities in Lithium-ion battery market

3.    SAFETY ISSUES INVOLVING LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES

Safety is very important for energy storage systems like batteries including Lithium-ion. Thermal stability is perhaps the most important of several parameters that determine safety of Li-ion cells, modules, and battery packs [3]. “The key safety aspects with lithium-Ion batteries are how they are put together and monitored. The worst outcome involves thermal runaway, or an explosion. This would be a major concern for big battery installations like the ones used to store renewable energy, but they operate in a very controlled environment [4].” The following are some of the safety incidents involving Lithium-ion batteries that are on record:

a.    Boeing 787

The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is a long-range, wide-body, twin-engine jet airliner which began commercial flights in late 2011. On 16 January 2013, all Boeing 787 Dreamliners were indefinitely grounded due to lithium-ion battery failures that had occurred in two planes [5]. One such incident occurred on 7^th January 2013 at exactly 10:21am EST at Boston International Airport involving a Japan Airlines flight JA829J. The Lithium-ion battery module in the auxiliary power compartment of the plane smoked and caught fire. This aircraft was entered on December 20, 2012, and it had only flown 22 times for a total of 169 hours by the time of the accident [6].

 

The Boeing 787 Dreamliner utilizes two identical lithium-ion batteries that help start the auxiliary power unit when the plane is on the ground and serve as a backup for electronic flight systems [5]. The Boeing 787's auxiliary power battery module is housed in the electronics bay behind the wing and provides power to the aircraft when the aircraft's engines are turned off [6]. The battery pack was a combination of 8 single cells of 75 Ah capacity connected in series, together with a battery management and monitoring systems were packaged to form the battery module. It is indicated that the aircraft was parked at Logan Airport and passengers including crew had departed. In its parked state the burning auxiliary power battery module was the only power source for the aircraft. 

 

The main battery module and auxiliary power battery module of the aircraft are both produced by Japan Yuasa Co., Ltd., with the same specifications [6]. When Boeing was initially qualifying the design of their battery system in 2009, lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) was the most widely used cathode chemistry for most commercial lithium-ion battery applications. This was due to its high energy density and high voltage limit compared to alternative chemistries [5]. However, concerns have been raised about the thermal stability of LiCoO2 and its tendency to release pure oxygen when over-charged, providing an ideal environment for combustion [7]. Flight JA829J incident challenged the application of large-scale lithium-ion power battery modules. It brought the question as to why the thermal control of the battery module suddenly broke out without pre-adjustment under the protection of strict layers of fortification and caused a chain reaction. The battery burning accident of Japan Airlines flight JA829J is a typical safety accident in which the thermal runaway of the lithium-ion battery caused by the internal short circuit is transmitted between the single cells inside the battery module, resulting in a chain reaction [6]. Thermal runaway depicts a process that is enhanced by heightened temperature, which culminates into energy that further increases temperature, often leading to a destructive result. It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback, and in chemical engineering, it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise. In electrical engineering it is associated with increased current flow and power dissipation.

Despite Boeing aircrafts being certified by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, this incident, and several others before it made Boeing 787 aircrafts fail to meet the quality specifications and inspection standards of the National Transportation Safety Board which stipulate that only one battery safety valve opening accident is allowed for every 10 million flight hours. The accident exposed the weakness of the external protection measures applied to prevent external short circuits and overcharge and discharge that they could not cope with internal short circuits.  Boeing redesigned the battery and charger, and designed a steel box to contain fires and vent hot gasses outside the plane [8]. As lithium-ion technology has matured, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) cathodes have gained wide acceptance in applications such as power tools and electric vehicles due particularly to their enhanced thermal stability over LiCoO2 cathodes [9]. Batteries made with LiFePO4 cathodes operate within a lower voltage range and have slightly less charge storage capacity than batteries with LiCoO2 cathodes [5].

b.    Tesla

Tesla, along with other vehicle manufactures, have had several of their electric vehicle models succumb to fire accidents. The table below lists some of these incidents. These incidents are mostly due to thermal runaway of the Lithium-ion battery. The common causes of EV fires include the self-ignition (or spontaneous/auto ignition) in parked vehicles due to arson or sustained abuse, for example, fire during the charging process, self-ignition while in driving, and fire after the traffic accident such as the high-speed collision [10]. On Tuesday, May 8, 2018, at 6:46 p.m., a 2014 Tesla Model S electric-powered car occupied by an 18-year-old driver and two 18-year-old passengers was traveling south in the 1300 block of Seabreeze Boulevard, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida at a recorded speed of 116 mph [11].

Figure 3: Photo of battery showing fire-damaged region at front that contained modules 15 and 16, loose individual cells (rust-colored), vertically stacked cells below loosened covers, and orange insulation caps covering high-voltage terminals [11].

The vehicle’s 400-VDC, 85-kWh lithium-ion traction battery was located under the floor of the car and spanned an area from the front tires’ rearward. The battery was divided into 16 modules (numbered from rear to front), plus a compartment for the battery management system. Each module contained individual battery cells stacked vertically. Modules 15 and16, at the front of the car, were the most severely burned [11].

Table 1 The List of Selective EV Fire Accidents Occurred in 2018 [10]

From: A Review of Battery Fires in Electric Vehicles

Date	Location	Vehicle	Incident	Comments
Jan [8]	Chongqing, China	Tesla, BEV	Fire in the parked vehicle	Spontaneous ignition
15 Mar [9]	Bangkok, Thailand	Porsche Panamera, PHEV	Fire while being charged	Car’s charging cable plugged to socket in the living room without built-in safety systems, and fire spread to the house
18 Mar [10]	Catalonia, Spain	BMW i3 REx, PHEV	Fire in the parked vehicle	Spontaneous ignition
23 Mar [7]	California, USA	Tesla Model X, BEV	Post-crash fire	Fire extinguished on the scene but reignited twice at tow yard 5 days later
May [11]	Anhui, China	Other, BEV	Fire while being charged
May [11]	Unknown	Yiema, BEV	Fire while being charged
8 May [12]	Florida, USA	Tesla Model S, BEV	Post-crash fire	Fire initially extinguished quickly but reignited during loading on tow truck and once again at the tow yard
15 May [13]	Ticino, Switzerland	Tesla, BEV	Post-crash fire	Vehicle hit a barrier, turned over and burst into flames
20 May [11]	Hangzhou, China	Jiangling, BEV	Fire while being charged
2 May [11]	Hubei, China	Zhong Tai, BEV	Fire while being driven	Self-ignited without traffic accident
28 May [11]	Shenzhen, China	Other, BEV	Fire while being charged
4 Jun [11]	Shandong, China	Other, BEV	Fire while being driven	Self-ignited without traffic accident
5 Jun [11]	Beijing, China	Other, BEV	Fire while being charged
15 Jun [14]	California, USA	Tesla Model S, BEV	Fire while being driven	Fire extinguished on the scene without reignition
12 Dec [15]	Gelderland, Netherlands	Jaguar I-Pace, BEV	Fire in the parked vehicle	The vehicle front was burned but no involvement of the battery pack
18 Dec [16]	California, USA	Tesla Model S	Fire in the parked vehicle	Fire started at workshop parking lot, and the fire reignited twice

c.    Samsung Note 7

Samsung Galaxy Note 7 was unveiled on 2nd August 2016 and officially released on 19th August 2016. Samsung permanently ceased production of the device on 11th October 2016, a day after announcing a global recall of the smartphone due to a factory fault in the phones' batteries that caused some of them to generate excessive heat, resulting in fires. On 8 September 2016, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued an advisory stating that “In light of recent incidents and concerns raised by Samsung about its Galaxy Note 7 devices, the Federal Aviation Administration strongly advises passengers not to turn on or charge these devices on board aircraft and not to stow them in any checked baggage [12].” The European Aviation Safety Agency followed suit on 9^th September 2016 advising passengers and crew members to keep these devices turned off and not to charge them while on board of the aircraft and not to put them inside the checked baggage.

 

“The critical component in lithium-ion batteries is the thin separator that sits between the two electrodes. If this barrier breaks down or is damaged by any outside pressure, this can trigger excessive heat and could cause a battery fire. Additionally, if this barrier breaks down to the point where the two electrodes touch, short-circuiting and overheating will result, potentially leading to a battery fire. Samsung rushed the production and design of the Galaxy Note 7 in order to beat the release of Apple’s iPhone 7 and, in the process, included an exceptionally thin separator in the batteries that could increase the likelihood of fires or explosions. Battery scientists say that Samsung’s aggressive design decisions made problems more likely, and that their choice to push the limits of battery technology left little safety margin in the event of a problem [13].” Over 16 trillion Won ($14.3 billion) was wiped off Samsung’s market capitalization amid increased concern from investors over the potential damage that the recall could cause to the world’s largest smartphone maker by market share [14].

d.    Other Incidents

In 2006 Apple recalled 1.8 million battery packs for its iBook and PowerBook notebook computers because of an overheating problem. The affected Lithium-ion batteries were manufactured by Sony and were used in the iBook G4 and PowerBook G4.  The company said the recall affected 1.1 million notebook batteries in the United States and 700,000 batteries abroad [15]. It was then reported that Apple's recall was the second-largest computer or electronics recall in history from Dell. The Sony 1.8 million batteries for Apple and 4.1 million for Dell costed the manufacturer between $172 million and $258 million.

 

On 6th September 2006 the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission issued a notice for recall of ThinkPad Notebook Computer Batteries Due to Fire Hazard. The product was the lithium-ion batteries used in ThinkPad notebook computers which affected about 168,500 battery packs (an additional 357,500 battery packs were sold worldwide). The battery distributer was Lenovo (United States) Inc., of Research Triangle Park, N.C. and International Business Machines Corp., of Armonk, N.Y. These battery packs were manufactured by Sony Energy Devices Corp., of Japan. The hazard involved overheating, posing a fire hazard to consumers. It was said that Lenovo had received one confirmed report of a battery overheating and causing a fire that damaged the notebook computer. The incident, which occurred within an airport terminal as the user was boarding an airplane, caused enough smoking and sparking that a fire extinguisher was used to put it out [16].

 

On 30th October 2008 the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission issued another order for PC Notebook computer batteries recall due to fire and burn hazard. The affected batteries were also Lithium-Ion used in Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba and Dell Notebook Computers. The number of affected units were about 35,000 batteries (an additional 65,000 batteries were sold worldwide), and the manufacturer was Sony Energy Devices Corporation, of Japan.  The hazard involved overheating, posing a fire and burn hazard to consumers. The Commission indicated that there were 19 reports of the batteries overheating, including 17 reports of flames/fire (10 resulting in minor property damage), and that two consumers experienced minor burns. The recalled batteries were included with, and sold separately for use in, the following notebook computer models: [17]

Computer Manufacturer	Units	Notebook Model	Battery Model
Hewlett-Packard	About 32,000	HP Pavilion: dv1000, dv8000 and zd8000 Compaq Presario: v2000 and v2400 HP Compaq: nc6110, nc6120, nc6140, nc6220, nc6230, nx4800, nx4820, nx6110, nx6120, nx9600	Recalled batteries will have a bar code label starting with A0, L0, L1 or GC
Toshiba	About 3,000	Satellite: A70/A75, P30/P5, M30X/M35X, M50/M55 Tecra: A3, A5, S2	n/a
Dell	About 150	Latitude: 110L Inspiron: 1100, 1150, 5100, 5150, 5160	OU091

The National Transportation Safety Board lists other incidents involving Lithium-ion batteries:

·         On August 7, 2004, a fire destroyed some freight that included lithium-ion batteries in a unit load device (ULD) at the Federal Express Corporation (FedEx Express) hub in Memphis, Tennessee.

·         On April 28, 1999, a fire destroyed freight, including primary lithium batteries, on two cargo pallets at the Northwest Airlines cargo facility at Los Angeles International Airport.

·         On May 24, 1989, a box of 25 lithium-ion batteries that had been transported on a FedEx Express airplane caught fire in the FedEx Express freight sorting facility in Memphis.

·         On September 26, 1996, wires connected to eight lithium batteries (type unknown) apparently shorted and burned a hole in their package, which was in the Airborne Express sorting area in Wilmington, Ohio.

·         On November 3, 2000, a package of primary lithium batteries in a FedEx Express truck near Portland, Oregon, showed evidence of internal leakage and charring around one battery.

·         On April 12, 2002, a fiberboard box started smoking while it was inside a FedEx Express ULD in Indianapolis, Indiana. The box contained lithium batteries (type unknown) that had short-circuited, starting a fire and damaging the interior of the box.

·         On August 9, 2002, a lithium-ion battery in a Samsung minicomputer/Palm Pilot wrapped in bubble wrap inside a fiberboard box short-circuited, causing the bubble wrap to catch fire and start to melt.

·         On March 5, 2002, near Houston, Texas, a fiberboard box of lithium batteries (type unknown) inside an American Freightways truck was crushed when other freight fell on top of it. The batteries and box caught on fire.

·         In May 1994, while being delivered to a handling agent by road, a shipment of small lithium batteries destined for Gatwick Airport in London, England, was found emitting smoke from a Unit Loading Device.

·         In April 2004, a flashlight began smoking in a seatback pocket on a Canadian airplane. The flashlight became so hot that the flight attendants could not handle it without oven mitts. The flashlight had a primary lithium battery and had been manufactured and bought in Beijing, China.

·         On November 3, 1999, the FAA Associate Administrator for Civil Aviation Security sent a memo to several agencies, including RSPA's Associate Administrator for the Office of Hazardous Materials, identifying four incidents that had happened that year that were not on aircraft but did involve the overheating and bursting of lithium-ion batteries in automatic external defibrillators.

·         Additionally, the FAA has a record of 30 other incidents involving a variety of other types of batteries that shorted and caused damage ranging from smoke to fire and explosion.

·         On October 29, 2004, a fire and small explosion involving a 9-volt lithium-ion battery occurred on a chartered flight from the Raleigh-Durham airport in Morrisville, North Carolina, to Parkersburg, West Virginia.

·         On June 30, 2005, a package containing lithium-ion batteries was discovered at the United Parcel Service (UPS) airfreight terminal in Ontario, California. One of four battery packs within a package had caught fire and been completely destroyed during transportation.

·         In August 2004, the Consumer Product Safety Commission recalled about 28,000 lithium-ion battery packs that LG Chem Ltd. of South Korea had manufactured for Apple PowerBook computers.” [18]

5.    CONCLUSION

The battery technologies are a critical approach in decarbonization of transport and energy to help combat climate change. A low-carbon future rests on an essential, yet also problematic, technology of Lithium-ion rechargeable batteries. The market for lithium-ion batteries is projected by the industry to grow from USD 41.1 billion in 2021 to USD 116.6 billion by 2030. The prevalence of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is amongst the major boosters of the adoption of lithium-ion batteries, which is expected to increase further in the future.  Despite the promising growth of the Lithium-ion battery storage technology, safety remains one of the major factors of concern. Explosions of the batteries due to thermal runaway have manifested in smartphones, personal computers, as well as some electric vehicle models over the years.  The battery industry is still in its infancy, but a lot of resources and investment is going into this industry, and Lithium-ion batteries still have the potential to bring about a technology revolution.

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